We would suggest that you don't let post processing techniques let you get "sloppy" when it comes to taking the best original image possible. If your camera is so equipped, activating the LCD Highlight Alert feature provides a quick visual confirmation of exposure problems. However, the histogram is the bible (over exposure is skewed right and under exposure is skewed left).

For now we would recommend that you use Auto White Balance only, especially if it is a sunny day. The AWB setting is variable anywhere between 3000K and 7000K and is preferable to using one of the presets as they use fixed values for colour temperature (for example, Daylight=5500K and Cloudy=6000K). If the ambient light is not at the specified value, the image will have a colour cast that may render even enhancement impossible. It can be argued that Custom is the best choice, but this entails manually setting up an index using either a white or 18% grey card under a range of different lighting conditions. This is probably best left for later experimentation. However, see Ian Lyons at Computer-Darkroom if you pathologically want to attempt this technique early on. We generally shoot some quick test pictures before starting a session, using either the internal Spot Meter (a reflected light method) or a separate Incident Meter (a direct light method) to gauge the appropriate aperature and shutter speed for the prevailing subject and lighting conditions. A quick check of the histogram tells us whether any micro adjustments are necessary.

Composition Basics

To us this topic is endless and completely subjective as everyone's tastes differ when viewing what is essentially, at least at the professional level, an art form. There are, however, some perspective basics. A main stay is to position at subject eye level and utilize background with uniform tonality such as open water or sky. Less homogeneous back drops can often be enhanced by opening the lens to achieve a satisfying background blur. Positioning should attempt to eliminate foreground and background distractions such as habitat that will interfere with placing the subject in a dynamic perspective (trees, branches, grass or horizons are usually the major culprits). You should be particularly aware of backgrounds that contain "hotspots" such as wet surfaces or bare branches that generally produce harsh reflections in full light. Difficulties with distractions can often be eliminated by trying a close-up. Dividing the viewfinder into nine quadrants provides four intersecting "power points" that are recommended as good subject placement locations (centered perspectives more often than not produce the least dynamic results). Capturing a head turn with eye contact is the pinacle of success, at least with avian subjects. Arthur Morris has produced an instructive article on this subject (Guidelines For Advanced Composition And Image Design). It is available in the Naturescapes Archives.

Exposure Fundamentals

For beginners, there is nothing more daunting than understanding exposure. In reality, there are only three variables that must be addressed: aperture, shutter speed and ISO. With digital cameras, you either have total creative control of each variable in the Manual Mode or rely on the autoexposure feature to set Aperture Priority or Shutter Priority based on the TTL (Through The Lens) reflected light algorithm (spot, average or evaluative) that the camera employs to make automated metering decisions. We're assuming you will bypass the fully automatic settings. After all, photography is all about taking control of the camera. Settings are visible through the viewfinder and can be easily changed through readily accessable dials. All you need is a little practise. The following are some generalizations that will help you get started.

The aperture choice or size of the opening that emits light onto the camera sensor is described by a series of "f-stops" associated with the focal length of the lens you are using (an example would be f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16 and f/22). The lowest number represents a fully "open" setting. In general, the aperture choice depends on the amount of depth-of-field or subject sharpness you are trying to create. As you "stop down" or go to successively higher f-stop numbers the opening narrows, creating a greater depth-of-field. Conversely, as you "open up" by choosing smaller f-stop numbers, less depth-of-field is produced, creating background blur. This, of course, is exactly what you are attempting to achieve when photographing birds in a contrived "perch" setting where the subject must be sharply defined on a background that significantly reduces detail (see Field Techniques below). In general, f/8 and f/11 are neutral settings producing good results in most static situations. Moving one or two full stops higher or lower produces greater or reduced depth-of-field respectively. The rule of thumb is that a neutral aperture choice generally produces a depth-of-field or image sharpness roughly equivalent to 1/3 in front and 2/3 behind the focus point. If you are photographing a small bird with a long tail that faces away from your camera position, it is probably wise to chose a higher f-stop in order to capture more tail detail. Experimenting a bit will soon make aperture choice easy. Most quality digital cameras provide f-stops between the above numbers, usually in 1/3 or 1/2 increments. Thus you may find f/6.3 and f/7.1 between f/5.6 and f/8.

Choice of shutter speed, or length of time the available light is allowed to remain on the camera sensor, is simply a function of motion. How fast is the subject moving? If relatively comatose, then a slow shutter speed can be utilized. This is usually in the order of 1/50 to 1/150 of a second. However, you will need extremely steady hands or a tripod at these levels. Flight shots, on the other hand, must by necessity freeze motion and require settings usually in the order of 1/1250 to 1/1750 of a second to achieve a good result. Again, a little experimentation will soon make these decisions obvious.

ISO choice is simply a function of the quantity of light available and subject movement. In general, an ISO of 200 is sufficient for wildlife photography in clear and sunny conditions where motion is not a mitigating factor. A flight shot, however, is best achieved using a setting of 400. Obviously, higher settings imply a "faster" sensor that allows for the use of higher shutter speeds for a given quanity of light. If light is really low, such as only early dawn or late dusk can produce, a setting of 800 or higher is recommended. However, higher settings can produce a "grainy" result depending on the quality of the digital camera you are using. Again, experimentation is the key to success.

As we have said, creating the best exposure for the subject and backdrop involves the ability to read light. For the most part, wildlife photography involves trade-offs as available light invariably doesn't perfectly match the movement or depth-of-field issues you are trying to solve. Flash can compensate somewhat but is often problematic to implement "in-habitat" unless the subject is used to human activity and positioning is relatively easy to achieve. For those wanting a quick start, "sunny sixteen" is the basic "rule-of-thumb" for setting exposure with the following digital proviso: set aperture to f/16 and shutter speed to 1/ISO on a sunny day if the subject is a mid-tone colour and your shadow is directly in front of you. If the subject is predominantly black or white, you would use f/11 and f/22 respectively. Although this is a good starting point, it is an extremely broad exposure interpretation requiring exacting conditions.

Have you produced the best exposure? All the histogram can really tell you at this juncture is that you have an even colour distribution for the exposure you have taken. Time and experience will help to make the decisions required much easier to implement. The general rules for lightening an exposure are to implement one or a combination of increasing ISO, opening the aperture or decreasing shutter speed. Obversely, to darken an exposure you would lower the ISO, close the aperature or increase the shutter speed.

For the most part you will be confronted by either flat light (the sun is directly behind you) or side light (the sun is to your left or right creating contrast in the form of shadows that conceal some aspect of the subject's detail). If the former, you are basically good to go although we recommend repositioning to create contrast as this produces the most dynamic results (photographs taken in flat light often tend to be quite bland). If the latter, you may require flash to "fill" or reveal the hidden detail, although the Exposure and Shadows/Highlights features in PhotoShop can provide some compensation (we recommend flash every time as the objective is to enter the PhotoShop environment with the best exposure possible).

Positioning for light is unfortunately only half the battle. The backdrop is equally as important to the overall composition. Here distance between subject and background is the dependent variable. As a rule, we try to create a background "blur" for smaller subjects (open the aperture) and show habitat for larger subjects (close the aperture).

Metering

You should know from the outset that the built-in meters of all digital cameras interpret reflected light as midtones. However, colours are usually more vivid in nature and the tonal contrast between subject and backdrop is invariably quite stark. If we've learned anything since beginning this hobby, the various reflected light algorithms employed in digital SLR cameras are currently mediocre even at the best of times. Our advice is to purchase a simple Incident Meter early on, measure direct light on the subject and set ISO, aperture and shutter speed independently. It's important to note that a reflected metering solution is functionally dependent on the meter pattern in use (spot, average or evaluative), the size of the subject in relation to the backdrop as seen through the viewfinder and any tonality differences between the two. Incident metering, however, eliminates the need to recognise and adjust for these tonality differences as direct light measurement renders the midtones and contrast exactly as seen. Don't be intimidated if you feel this is too complex. It's simple and will lead to far greater satisfaction with output. Besides, there is no reason to begin using an enhancement program such as PhotoShop until you can master exposure in known and relatively simple light and subject movement conditions. Our advice is use an Incident Meter whenever possible, photograph in RAW, learn to adjust ISO for light intensity, aperture for depth-of-field and shutter speed for subject movement. Equally important is to control camera shake, both handheld and on a tripod.

Here's an example of just how easy this is. On a clear and sunny day under flat light conditions (your shadow is in front of you), we guaranty the Incident Meter at ISO 200 will show 1/800 at F/8. This will give you a perfect exposure and once experienced you won't have to take a light reading again in this situation. Moreover, if you want more depth-of-field and "close down" to say F/11, simply count the clicks on the aperture wheel to achieve F/11, then move the shutter wheel in the opposite direction the same number of clicks. Alternatively, if you need to adjust for motion, simply double the ISO and shutter speed to 400 and 1600 respectively. Both should produce perfect exposures. What could be simpler? If this sounds simplistic, it is not too far off the mark from what you will encounter in the field on a sunny day. Moreover, you will soon find that making similar adjustments using an Incident Meter is just as straight forward in other simple lighting conditions, a situation that will certainly speed up your reactions in the field.

Using Manual flash also couldn't be easier for main, balanced or fill situations. Simply set your flash to Manual Mode and adjust the distance indicator to correspond to the number shown on your lens meter (if over 20 feet, then use a Better Beamer and adjust the distance by half for balance and a quarter for fill).

As you can see, exposure theory has few variables and some nuances but the basics are easy to understand. Charles Glatzer has produced an excellent primer on exposure - Incident Metering And Digital Photography. It is available free through Naturescapes Archives. A great book for beginners is Understanding Exposure by Bryan Peterson. The Revised Edition adds the subtle changes that digital brings to the equation. The benchmark for film users is the Pocket Guide To Evaluative Metering Systems by Arthur Morris. It's an absolute must to understanding the subtle adjustments that produce truly great exposures (unfortunately, it's now out-of print so you'll have to scrounge up a used copy or await the hopefully forthcoming digital version). Either one teaches the basics of exposure compensation and provides sufficient insight to get you underway using digital. Correct exposure is simply an exercise in recognizing what isn't a mid-tone value and adjusting accordingly. Utilizing flash employs exactly the same compensation principles except they now apply to light that creates shadows or harsh contrasts. Again, it's an acquired skill but using Manual early on and practising will make attaining good exposures a lot less arduous.

These are just some quick points to help you get started. For us, knowing some of the shortcomings of digital early on would certainly have eliminated many hours of exposure frustration. A great primer for learning to read light and understand manual camera operation are any of the "Shoot The Light" workshops offered by Charles Glatzer. If you want a cost effective introduction, we highly recommend his Jasper course as the subject matter is focused, the wildlife abundant and the backdrops simply breathtaking.